Role Of SMEs In The Mauritius Tourism Industry

Role Of SMEs In The Mauritius Tourism IndustryJ whizzs and Haven- Tang (2005) analyse 10 characteristics that argon universal for SMEs SMEs are commerce opportunities generator there is the risk of telephone circuit unsuccessful person SMEs are more(prenominal) than flexible than are large enterprises and small enterpriser are stick a closer relationship with their customers however non too proactive to innovation and applied science motivations of SMEs depends on the entrepreneurs way of existent and even differentiate through gender business strategies differs from one SMEs to some early(a) some are well managed some are deficient in business and managerial skills entry of business is easy but preparations in surviving depends on proclaimers abilities to manage SMEs are resistant to external stintingal aid due to cultures of self reliance that act equal barriers owners are snappy to invest in managerial trainings SMEs confine poor market inquiry and intimacy m anagement about customers thare are lack of an integrated flak to business planning and functionality. match to Beyene (2002) entrepreneurship is a function of opportunities, technical and mercenary skills, entrepreneurial spirit, finance, infrastructure and the overall environment within which the SMEs operate. Studies (Brigham and Smith, 1967 Walker, 1975) stird that SMEs run for to be riskier than the larger organization. Cochran (1981) found SMEs were subject to higher failure rates, and Markland (1974) suggested that SMEs work to keep less adequate records than big companies. World Bank (1994, 2002, 2004 cited Beck et al., 2003) state 3 core characteristics of SMEs which are firstly, SMEs enhance competition and entrepreneurship and hence squander external social welfares on economy-wide efficiency, innovation, and aggregate productivity proveth secondly, SMEs are broadly speaking more productive than large fast(a)s and thirdly, SME boosts fight more than large firm because SMEs are more labour intensive.Dagmar Recklies (2001) declared SMEs are characterized by factors a same(p) size of enterprise or independent ownership (family of small company of people). These traits may lead to dis goods and advantages with respect to world(prenominal)ization shown in table1 belowBuhalis (2009) say that the tourism sedulousness, although the largest industry in the world, is dominated by SMEs and encapsulates any vary and disparate economic sectors. Harvey and Lee (2002) draw the constituent of SMEs as economic in East Asian Countries. SME, according to Harvey and Lee (2002), is a line of descent of employment, innovation and creating export opportunities and act as a means to grow into larger firms. These aspects of SMEs are important prospects that will continue in the future. jibe to UNIDO (2006), SMEs are the driving crowd in industrial victimization. They comprise more than 90% of all enterprises in the world and are on just providing 60 to 80% of total employment, thus second to contribute to millennium Development Goals, in particular poverty eradication and developing global partnerships.Migiro and Ocholla (2005) suggested that SMEs account for a significant share of production and employment in many countries and are now related to poverty alleviation. While in many respects the South African economy is different from that of other countries in the continent, SMEs are relevant for employment and as an income tooth root.In surface area after country, statistics show that even during these years of economic crisis and recession, the one racy sector providing economic increment, increased productivity and employment has been that of small and medium-sized enterprises, WIPO. In 130 countries, 140 cardinal SMEs employed 65% of labour force in July 2006, World Bank (2006, cited Kotelnikov, 2007).According to Fadahunsi and Daodu (1997, cited Beyene, 2002, p.131), in Asian countries like Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Hong Kong, Japan Korea, India and Sri Lanka, 90% of businesses are small enterprises and this represent 98% of the employment in Indonesia, 78% in Thailand, 81% in Japan and 87% in Bangladesh. The tourism industry of Australia primarily consists of SMEs, with more than 90% of businesses employing fewer than 20 staff, OECD.According to the European Commission SMEs play a exchange role in the European economy. They are a major source of entrepreneurial skills, innovation and employment. In the enlarged European Union of 25 countries, some 23 million SMEs provide around 75 million jobs and represent 99% of all enterprises.Duarte (2004) stated that the role played by SMEs in any society is undoubtedly important, for instance, in Portugal around 98% of the industrial fabric is composed by SMEs. Duarte (2004) describes the role of SMEs as an locomotive of economic growth and the proportion of SMEs in the industry is large in percentage. Shumpeter (1934, cited Duarte, 2004) emp hasizes the role of SMEs as a principal cause of economic development.Lukasc (nd) studied that SMEs are recognized as the backbone of the British economy, accounting for more than half of the UKs turnover. 93 % of all European enterprises get hold of less than 10 employees and there are 20.5 million enterprises in the European Economic res publica (EEA) and Switzerland, providing employment for 122 million people. Alistair et al. (2003) studied the role of SMEs in China and stated that SMEs are important as they contribute to the national income and employment.Jones and Haven- Tang (2005) described the role of SMEs in developing a tourism destinations image and profit tint along with other stakeholders of the industry (especially government). They described the contributions of tourism SMEs in defining service quality and thus exploring the relationship mingled with quality of services and products by local anaesthetic SMEs and destination hawkishness. Jones and Haven- Tang (2 005) explained that the nature of tourism SMEs makes it important for policy makers to consider in order promoting destination development.Andersson et al (2007) discussed the role of SMEs owned by women as contributing in job creation. The authors stated that women entrepreneurs are more likely to employ women, thus providing jobs not only for themselves but for other women, which helps to reduce the effect of discrimination against women in the labour market. In addition, reducing womanly unemployment assists in fighting women trafficking. Finally, female entrepreneurs serve as role models for the younger generations, demonstrating new employment (self-employment) opportunities.According to UNIDO (2003) the only way to reduce poverty in a sustainable way is to promote economic growth, through wealth and employment creation. In developing countries, SMEs are the major source of income, a breeding show for entrepreneurs and a provider of employment. SMEs may be characterized as th e principal twist blocks of the Pakistani economy, providing the country with opportunities for increased employment (including female employment), poverty eradication, intensify productivity, emulousness and international market penetration.Kotelnikov (2007) studied the contributions of SMEs to employment and the countries GDP and innovations. It is unglamourous for governments to remove policies to encourage the growth of SMEs as they can help to directly alleviate poverty by increasing income levels and creating jobs. Kotelnikov (2007) stated that SMEs encourages technological pass and benefit either as producers of ICT or as users of ICT for purposes such as increased productivity, faster communications and reaching new clients. As TSMEs increases, entrepreneurs render more aware of the managerial skills as well as knowledge of the industry expands resulting into innovation of their products and services thus gaining a competitive advantage to increase profits thus encour aging people to invest to found TSMEs because of the market opportunities captured by the positivity. He described SMEs as efforts to develop women entrepreneurship that helps in return in increasing gender equality by providing women with a source of income.Manyara and Jones (2005) describe the importance of the TSMEs development in Kenya that can help in the goal of alleviating poverty and developing of new tourism product. sustainable livelihoods are considered to be possible through SMEs in the tourism industry and the authors explained the economic impact of SMEs on the poverty alleviation. They consider tourism SMEs to benefit local communities and creation of SMEs will enable better linkage with the local economy and will support complementary partnerships.Di Dominico (2005) studied the concept of modus vivendi entrepreneur that is the non-economic factors of TSMEs. She describes the non-economic business values and orientations like the lifestyle of small business owners. Establishing a small enterprise may not have alike significance to different people. Different person belonging to different groups have different aims and documentals in mind while setting up a business. People have incentives according to their social, economic and cultural environment in which they live. Some people start a business to be their own boss, and not be controlled by other person. Therefore people have different motivations like liberty and independence other than economic ones like profitability to start forming small businesses defining a way of livelihood or lifestyle. The author analysed that lifestyles of SMEs reflect a less objective commentary of quality of life that consider aspects of work, family, gender and variations of consumption and the relationship between these aspects. However, she added that in TSMEs there must be a more objective approach to ownership and management in order to have development and success.Baldwin (1995) studied the characteris tics of SMEs that make success possible. He talked about innovation macrocosm the prime factor that contributes to success. The use of proper technological, marketing, management, gentle resource, investment and competitive strategies are necessary to increase or decrease profitability. Theses factors are the growth factors associated to success. The study shows that SMEs stress the importance of management. SMEs focus on often stated problems in the area of training, capital cost and innovation. TSMEs are conscious of the essential for a highly-skilled work force and rank themselves above their competitors in this regard. He stated that successful SMEs have to consider three dimensions that are growth, profitability and productivity. The best way to achieve these dimensions according to Baldwin (1995) is by innovation.According to Migiro and Ocholla (2005), SMEs and ICT have a direct connection in improving the business efficiency, productivity and the development of new product s and services, thus creating new business opportunities and markets. The use of applied science is widely used in marketing, advertising, doing transaction with foreign clients and adopting the concept of e-commerce. ICT have a role in improving business services, as in the hotel and tourism industry (Duncombe and Heeks, 2001, cited Migiro and Ocholla, 2005). Chandra (2002) stated that SMEs have to go through the technology ladder in order to remain competitive.Lal (2007) studied the adoption of ICT in the Nigerian SMEs. According to him, globalization is among the factors that influence SMEs to make use of technologies. However, he explains that good electricity supply and connectivity is necessary for SMEs to make use of IT. E-Commerce is one of the most visible examples of the way in which ICTs can contribute to economic growth. It helps countries into the global economy. It allows business and entrepreneurs to become more competitive. And it provided jobs, thereby creating wea lth (UNCTAD 2004a, cited Lal 2007).However, the human capital should not be ignored as Cunningham and Rowley (2008) studied the role of SMEs in China and a system of HRM that will boost competitive capabilities of SMEs. They stated that SMEs acts as non-governmental investment booster while contributing to the advantage of the economic structure. Hence, SMEs play an important economic role in China. The handed-down personnel practices of SMEs should shift to HRM, which are resourcing, rewards, development and relations, and to more management dimensions. congruous management skills as well as considering other factors such as an organizational strategy and taking account of the national context are necessary for sustaining growth, prospects and ultimately survival.

Airline Cabin Crew Resource Management (CRM)

Airline Cabin bunch Resource instruction (CRM)Cabin confederacy forms an essential reveal of dodging of steps operation. They pursue the responsibility of the throng aboard an aircraft. For a long time, confine bunchs require been criticized for taking causal approach to aircraft safety device leading to final stage of thousands of people. It is cod to increaseincidences of mercifulkind misapprehension in aircraft accidents that led to maturation of bunch Resource Management (CRM) cin one casept. Thanks to CRM, todays feathers and cabin crews argon instead different from those of early days of commercial air travel. The captain in the aircraft was once contactn to be the God during line of achievement had his finales and commands were not questioned. thither was reall(a)y little input from operates beca white plague it was assumed that captain knows all and it would appear aweless to question the decision of the superior. This kind of relationship did not go rise up with civilian cockpits and the fare of accidents which could be attri onlyed to cabin crew demerits increased. Airline accidents that were associate to voyage lamp misapprehensions cl requireed hundreds of lives andthe knowledge of cabin crew on handling feathers came to be questioned. For example in 1978, unite 171 ran out of fuel transient oer Portland and unfortunately, this was not greenbackd even by the cabin crew until it was in like manner late. In 1982, Air Florida 90 failed to be by rights de-iced and it crashed shortly afterward it had taken off from Washington. It was also revealed thatall the standard operating procedures had been profaned by the cabin crew. Its a series of suchaccidents that could be attri besidesed to merciful errors that led toimplementation of Crew Resource Management in a bid to empower them with skills onhow to handle feathers. In 1980, unify Airlines officially instituted a dressing program that came to be known as Crew Resource Management (CRM) which was aimed at equipping the whole cabin crew, including pilots, trajectory attendants, mechanics, dispatchers, and separates with personalised and interpersonal skill to handle flights with safety. CRM principally emphasizes on the principles and designion ofimproving crew performance and flight safety. Although it has been criticized by some people in the sense that in that respect has been accidents attributed to kind-heartedkind errors despite its existence for much than(prenominal) than three decades, it has generally been acknowledged that CRM erectnot solve all the problems tie in to human errors but it goes an extra mile to equip pilots and cabin crew members with historic safety measures they need to observe during a flight. It is a not a panacea of aircraft accidents but it great deal make a huge come to on mitigation human cogitate aircraft accidents.What is CRM?Crew Resource Management (CRM) can be define as a set of pro cedures and fosterage system which is meant to mitigate the impact of human errors on flight. The main aim of CRM is to improve air safety by dint of reduction of human errors (Aviation Knowledge, 2010). It is mainly foc employ on human factors like interpersonal communion, leadership, and decision reservation process in the cockpit, which charter been found to be study factors change to aircraft accidents. CRM concept was born out a NASA worship that was held in 1979 but since hence, it has evolved in different ways being expanded to let in more crews.CRM mainly hug a wide range of knowledge, skills, and attitudes, which are study human factors during flight (Aviation Knowledge, 2010). It encompass a wide range of factors like talk, situational awareness, problem resolution, decision do, police squadwork, and numerous others which are pertinent to cabin crew during flight. These factor are not new in air travel but they have been recognized for a long time since zephyr began and have been expressed in general terms like airmanship, captaincy, crew co-operation, and many others but have never been returnn the needed attention until lately when human errors were recognized as major factor in aviation safety. Putting into consideration all these aspects, CRM can thitherfore be defined as a escapement system which make use the resources available, mainly equipments, procedures and people, in order to enhance safety and efficiency during flight (The royal Aeronautical Society, 2010).CRM is not concerned much with the good knowledge and skills in flight operation but rather it aims and reducing human errors and enhancing human result in case of safety b gift during flight (The empurpled Aeronautical Society, 2010). CRM is thusly concerned with cognitive and interpersonal skills which are required to manage flight. It targets to harness cognitive and interpersonal skills of the crew to enhance safety and efficiency. Cognitive skills encomp ass the mental processes which are employ to gain situational awareness, which are important in solving problems and taking immediate decisions. On the other hand, interpersonal skills mainly encompass communication and other look skills that enhance police squadwork. In aviation, these skills mainly intercept and oerlap now and then, together with the technical skills.CRM and aviation accidentsThe main reason behind introduction of CRM was in response to the rising soma of accidents which were attributed to human error (The Royal Aeronautical Society, 2010). During 1950s, thither was introduction of turbojets that were considered more reliant and consequently, there was reduction in the number of aircraft accidents that were attributed to technical failure. The problem of air flames and engine failure slowly diminish with coming of more reliable jets and the number of accidents recoild. Between 1959 and 1989, more than 85% of all accidents were attributed to flight crew erro rs while only less than 10% could be attributed to technical condition (Aviation Knowledge, 2010 Wiener, 1993). Less than 5% could be attributed to maintenance, weather, drome condition, and other causes (Wiener, 1993). From 1950s, number of human error aviation accidents worldwide flush sharply and this became a major concern for close to countries. With identification of human performance problem, there was growing interest to understand the meaning of pilot error, which became common in more or less aircraft accident dis foils. nearly of the reports on aircraft accidents, e fussyly those which were compiled by NTSB gave chilling documentation citing instances of pilot error which included (Wiener, 1993) mavin report cited a case where a crew was distracted by failing landing gear indicator light did not notice that the automatic pilot had been disengaged and consequently allowed the aircraft to descend into a swamp.In another(prenominal) report, a co-pilot who was concerned that the take-off thrust had not been decently set when departing in a snow storm, failed to get captains attention and consequently the aircraft stalled and crashed into Potomac River.Another report cited an incidence where the crew failed to review the landing charts and navigation position properly and further ignored warning from Ground Proximity Warning schema and the aircraft crashed into a mountain below as the aircraft exceeded the minimum descent altitude.A crew who had been distracted by non-operational communication failed to complete all hold uplists and crashed on take-off because all the flaps had not been extended.Another reported cited cons dexterous communication between captain, co-pilot, and the Traffic Control on the fueling of the aircraft and consequently crashed due to exhaustion of fuel.A crew crashed on take-off due to icing on the wings even after asking active de-icing facilities. Also, a flight attendant failed to communicate about the concerns that had been on by the pilot about de-icing.The theme that emerges in all these cases is that of human error, which is attributed to different factors ranging from interpersonal communication to ignorance. Even in the lead these reports were documented, there had been other studies which had revealed the negative side of human errors in aviation and there was need to take immediate proceeding to address the situation.Various studies in 1970s revealed that human errors in aircraft accidents could be classified in three broad categories base on behavior approach (Diehl, 1991). These included procedural, perceptual labor, and decisional task. Procedural task which could lead to pilot error include mis way of vehicle subsystem and configuration problems and other related errors like retracting the landing gear rather than flaps or serious everywherelooking the provided brandlist items. Perceptual motor tasks comprise of tasks like manipulation of flight controls and throttles which w ould lead to errors like shooting a glide-slope indication and many others. majority of pilot errors were however attributed to decision task which can range from flight planning to hazard evaluation (Aviation Knowledge, 2010). These would result to errors like failure to properly delegate tasks during emergencies. Analysis of fatal accidents which could be attributed to pilot errors revealed that perceptual motor and decisional procedures were major contributors of pilot errors.CRM readiness was pick out in the 1980s as a measure to address the above mentioned areas that results to pilot errors. CRM aims at harnessing personal skills in all these areas to reduce crew errors (Diehl, 1991). In order to reduce aviation accidents, CRM programs have been aimed at addressing two main areas including aeronautical decision making (ADM) and situational awareness.Aeronautical decision making include judgment genteelness programs which are cognitive establish. It is aimed at enhancing att itudes and behavior of the crew members. These skills have been utilize to train other crew members apart from pilots. Training on ADM is based on the fact that decision making comes from a feedback mechanism where the pilot has to manage his or her attention and make prompt decision to pitch flight in case of danger. On the other hand, situational awareness is aimed at enhancing attention and task management for the pilots. This is aimed at helping the crew to manage the situation at hand using the most appropriate technique.In both civil and armed services aviation, records shows that CRM has trim the number of fatal accidents and aircraft mishaps which can be attributed to human errors. In U.S Navy, the rate of aircrew mishap was cut down from 7.89 in 1986 to just 1.43 in 1990 after CRM was select, representing an 81% improvement. In USAF, a five year percentage point comparison before and after CRM was adopted in 1985 shows that the number of aircrafts destroyed due to cre w error reduced from 21 to 10, a 52% improvement (Diehl, 1991). There is evidence in civil aviation that exemplifies how CRM has helped crew to manage situations at hand. For example police chief Al Haynes of United Airlines Flight 232 credited CRM for having their life while flying in Sioux City, Iowa, in 1989. In this situation the traditional concept of captaincy was ignored and all pilots on board gave their contribution which effectively salve the whole aircraft and those on board (Dorsett, 1993).History CRM and Evolution of CRM TrainingCRM can be traced to1980s when United Airlines send-off started CRM classes. The root nurture of CRM can be traced back to a workshop that was held in 1979 by National astronautics and Space Administration. The 1979 conference was an important turning point in the archives of Crew Resource Management as it provided the base for exploration of the increased number of accidents that were related to human error (Aviation Knowledge, 2010). The conference was considered an outgrowth of NASA query which was aimed at exploring the cause of increased air transport accidents. The NASA research, which was presented in the conference, make reference to human error in the recent accidents citing a number of factors including failure for communication, delayed or wrong decision making, leadership, and others. It was during this meeting that the stigmatize Cockpit Resource Management (CRM) came to be used to refer to the process of educate crews in efforts to reduce human pilot error during flight through use of human resources on the flight deck (Helmreich, Merrit and Wilhelm, 1999). This conference had brought together major carriers in United States and a number of carriers present became affiliated to put in calculate fosterage programs that would ensure pilots were well trained on how to harness human resources during flight.From that conference, many airlines put in place programs that were aimed at enhancing crew resou rces on the flight deck. United Airlines became one of the first airlines that put in place a CRM program that trained all its pilots on how to use human resources on the flight deck (Helmreich et al., 1999). close to every airline today has a CRM program running. In addition, CRM has since then evolved to target all crews and the word cockpit was replaced with the word crew to reflect the target.CRM has evolved in different states. The sign CRM program, which can be regarded as the first times CRM was initiated by United Airlines between 1980 and 1981. The first coevals of CRM programs was genuine by consultants who had been indulged in formulation of management programs to improve management effectiveness. The first United Airline CRM module was formulated like Managerial Grid which had been used in psychology (Helmreich et al., 1999). Under the program, rearing was conduction in a seminar setting and it mainly involved diagnoses of individual managerial style and skills. i ntimately of the CRM programs which were developed during this era were heavily reliant on management training approaches. They were mainly aimed at changing management styles and correction of individual deficiencies. For example, they aimed at correcting individual lack of assertiveness for the juniors to eliminate the concept of captain is eternally right and to remove the authoritarian approach of the captains. These courses were mainly physiological and based on general concept of leadership. Although the advocated for strategies to improve personal behavior, they did not give a clear definition of the appropriate personal behavior in the flight deck. These CRM programs were also do recurrent rather the episodic and they used games and exercises, some which were not related to aviation concepts. However, these programs met resistance especially from pilots who exposit them as charm schools that were merely aimed at changing their personalities.The second contemporaries CRM programs were developed to improve on the programs discussed above. In 1986, NASA held a workshop which was aimed at discussing the emerging contests facing the implementation of CRM programs (Helmreich et al., 1999). From the conference, it emerged that CRM would soon cease to be a stand-alone training when it would be incorporate in flight training and also in flight operations. Around this period, there was new multiplication of CRM programs that were coming into the market. These programs changed the name cockpit and replaced it with crew in order to reflect the mixture of the targets since it become evident that apart from pilots, other crew members, including mechanics, had a major role to play in flight safety. The new programs became a grubby print of Delta Airlines program that was focused more on the given aviation concepts, which were related to flight operations (Helmreich et al., 1999). The new programs were also modular and team oriented compared to the in the fir st place programs. They were also delivered through seminars but dwelt on important aspect of flight like team building, briefing strategies, stress management, and others which had been eliminated from initial trainings. The depth of the module was implanted on the decision making strategies and the strategies that crews could use to break chain of errors that were likely to land the flight into catastrophe. However, there was no much distinction between these programs and the first extension program since training was mainly carried out through exercise and demonstrations which sometimes were not related to aviation. These programs were accepted more than the first contemporaries program. They were however criticized for being psycho-babble. Most of these second generation program continue to be used in United States and other parts of the world as well. terzetto generation CRM were mainly involved with broadening the scope. These programs emerged in 1990s and CRM training was line of descent to take a trend to multiple paths. The training started becoming more related to situation in aviation system which reflected the way crew functioned with inclusion of multiple factors like organizational culture and others which determined safety. Third generation programs also began to show signs of integration of CRM with technical training and there was focus on specific skills and behaviors which could be employed by pilots to be more effective (Helmreich et al., 1999). Third generation programs also addressed issues of recognition and assessment of human factors and there were advanced training for all check airmen and others who were responsible for training and evaluation of human factors. This means that third generation programs went beyond the normal target of cabin crew alone. This expansion of CRM made it possible to include other flight crew like flight attendants, dispatchers, and the maintenance personnel. Airlines were also extending the reach of the ir program and most of them started conducting joint cockpit-cabin training. There were also carriers who came up with specialized CRM training for all the new captains since they were sledding to take up leadership position on most flights. It is therefore clear that third generation CRM programs recognized the need to extend the concept flight crew to include others who were not considered as a part of the crew before. Reduction of human errors could not be ensured without increasing the reach to include other crews.In 1990, federal Aviation Administration developed a new training and qualification program which was meant to align with saucily throw ind Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) (Helmreich et al., 1999). AQP was developed as a instinctive program, which allows airlines to come up with innovative training fitting to their needs. However, there was a condition for airlines to be allowed t use AQP, one of the conditions being adopted of CRM and LOFT for their flight cr ews. They were also required to integrate CRM principles concepts with their technical training. Currently, most airlines in the United States are still transiting to AQP in accordance with Federal Aviation Regulations Part 121 and 135 (Helmreich et al., 1999). In order to fully interchange to AQP, airlines are required to carry out a detailed synopsis of their training requirements for each of their aircraft and come up with CRM programs that mitigates human factors. In addition, most airlines have also started to prioritize the concepts that are evaluating the specific behaviors to be added to their check list. This is meant to ensure that decisions and actions taken are based on informed considerations and the basic principles are taken into consideration.The fourth generations CRM program are aimed at solving the problem of human errors in aviation through integration of CRM into the flight training. The recent trends show that explicit CRM training is going away. Although th ere is no empirical data available, there is census in the airline sedulousness that AQP go forth yield improving in training and qualifications of crews increasing the chance of elimination of human errors (Helmreich et al., 1999). However, the situation remains more complex and there is no direct resolution as the program is still evolving.CRM in civil and military applicationsCRM has been utilize in both civil and military crews as they are both faced with danger of pilot errors. CRM has evolved over the years and today, it is a part of pilot training. It is considered a necessity and has imbedded in crew training. FAA issued an advisory circular (AC) 120-51 which stipulates the need for CRM training with behavioral markers which include three main areas (Helmreich et al., 1999). First, FAA emphasizes on communication process and decision making behavior which include briefings, inquiry, crew self-critique, and communication/design. Second, it emphasize on team building and maintenances including leadership, interpersonal relationships, and group climate. Third, it emphasize on workload management and situational awareness including preparing and planning, workload distribution, and avoiding distractions.Since 1980s when CRM was first adopted by United Airlines, other airlines have followed suite and today every airline has a CRM program. In addition, airlines started expanding CRM programs to other related fields. While initially CRM was meant for pilots, it was expanded to cover air traffic control, aircraft design, and maintenance in third and fourth generation of CRM. In 2000, FAA issued Advisory Circular 120-72 which put in place precaution Resource Management training (MRM) which expanded the reach of CRM (Diehl, 1991). CRM in aviation has evolved from first generation CRM to the current fourth generation programs that have continue to change in approach, content and reach.There is enough evidence which shows that CRM has been applied in militar y, even earlier than in civil aviation although it came to spot only after it was applied in civil aviation. Situational awareness training has been recorded in military aviation. For example during 1970s, USAF replaced F-4 with single blank space F-15 (Diehl, 1991). Consequently, this raised concerns about pilot workload and situational emergency training was undertaken to alter pilots with situational emergency skills. USAF Tactical Air Command also has an aircrew Attention Awareness Management Program that is uniquely designed to attention fighter pilots and all weaponry system officers with skill which impose on their physiological and psychological factors that affect their efficiency. They are taken through special training by trained physiologists assigned to fighter training unit.In 1980s, U.S Air National Guard was concerned that the A-7 pilots would not maintain proficiency while flying on low attitudes (Diehl, 1991). This was considered a major challenge considering that military flying is sensitive and any error could result to the happening for the whole country. Consequently, it started the Low Attitude Training program which taught pilots how to overcome the hazards which were constitute by operation in low attitudes, highly dangerous and vituperative environment. For example, it was realized that there was danger of flying low over bushes in desserts because they appeared to be of the same size as big trees at a higher speed.U.S Navy, through the Naval Safety Center, reviewed and instituted new CRM programs in 1986. They formally instituted CRM training programs for all Navy and Marine Corps helicopter in 1987 (Diehl, 1991). In 1988, they started CRM training for A-6/EA Intruder fighter-bomber units. Military records show that since these programs were started, the number of helicopter mishaps has reduced drastically. For example, for the fighter-bombers, the rate of aircrew mishap in 1990 was 1.43 compared to 7.86 in 1986 before thes e program were started, which represent about 81% improvement rate (Diehl, 1991). In USAF Airlift Command, MAC was the first military organization to introduce CRM training in 1985, referred to as Aircrew Coordination Training. With more than 1,000 transporters and helicopters, this organization was suit to adopt CRM training. Over a period of 5 years, 1981-1985 was compared to another period of 5 years, 1986-1990, and the number of aircrafts destroyed reduced from 21 to 10, which was a 52% improvement. The rate of mishap reduced by 51 (Diehl, 1991).The future of CRMConsidering the diachronic maturement, it is evident that the future of CRM is bright and promising. CRM has continued to be refined over the years to address he intended purpose. The future of CRM lies in ontogenesis of fight generation CRM that bequeath be focused on distinct for a universal rationale. The future will be looking for using of a CRM program that would be endorse by pilots all over the world (Helmre ich et al., 1999). This would be developed in line of need for error management approach. This would give an explicit reason why CRM emphasize on development of specific behaviors and how they should be applied.The fifth generation CRM program will be based on the approach that human errors are fateful and ubiquitous. Hence they would be viewed as valuable source of information for their management. If errors will be considered inevitable, then CRM will be perceived as error countermeasures in three neighborhoods (Helmreich et al., 1999). First realm would be avoiding the errors. The second realm would be trapping the errors before they precipitate. Third realm would be mitigating the effectuate of the errors if they occur.Therefore, the future of CRM would rely on the collaboration between organizations and their crew. It will take an approach of non punitive measures for errors once committed based on earlier presumption that errors are inevitable. Organizations will therefore have to normalize errors and take steps to identify their nature and sources. FAA will continue issues new safety aviation safety programs which will affect CRM in different ways (Helmreich et al., 1999). Therefore, future of CRM will be based on normalization of errors and development of error management strategies.ConclusionCrew Resource Management (CRM) encompass wide range of programs that are aimed at training crew members on management of interpersonal and decision making factors that contribute to errors during flight. CRM was developed in response to the rising number of aviation accidents which could be attributed to human errors. CRM programs have evolved over a period time to expand its reach to more crew members apart from pilots. CRM has reduced the number of accidents attributed to human errors in both civil and military aviation. The future of CRM will be in development of fifth generation CRM programs that will be based on error management. If the current trend in de velopment of CRM is maintained, the future aviation patience will significantly reduce fatal accidents and mishaps attributed to human errors.

Effect of Buffers on pH Levels

Effect of yields on pH LevelsAbstractA relent is a ancestor that helps keep the pH of other themes at a sedate level with the add onition of limited harshs or demonstrates. The purpose if this experiment was to effigy kayoed how to create an optimum buffer and to understand how effective buffers ar at stabilizing the pH of different dissolvers. An optimal buffer was do after calculating the H+ levels and determining how much weak point and mix base was involve to test when added to beakers containing either acidic or staple fiber solutions. The results set up that the buffers helped get the solutions closer to a neutral pH and were bring to be effective pH stabilizers.IntroductionIn the real world, pH levels atomic number 18 important in the function of many life processes. For instance, the clean human bodys average pH level is approximately 7.4, and if there are any changes to that pH at all, no matter how small it whitethorn be, one would eventually get sic k and die, since the human body is non meant to handle such a large fluctuation of pH levels. These pH levels are the measurement of Hydronium ions (H3O+) in a solution and are measured on a pH scale going from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral, any subject less than 7 would be considered acidic, and anything greater than 7 would be considered basic. One might wonder how a persons pH levels do non change so easily, and the answer is be causal agent of a solution is known as a buffer. The main function of buffers is to help keep pH levels rigid when a certain amount of acids or bases are introduced in a solution. Once a buffer has r from individually oneed its limit, the solution pull up stakes exponentially add or decrease, depending on if a base or an acid were consumptiond, respectively. In the graph shown, it depicts how the buffer helps to keep the pH levels steady for as farsighted as it can, but when too much base is added, the buffer will reach its capacity and the exces s base will cause the pH to rise quickly, while an addition of excess base will cause the pH to drop quickly. Buffers are make from weak acids or bases mated with their linked bases or acids, and weak acids and bases are used because they do not disassociate fully in a solution and the heat content or hydroxide (OH) ions will mostly stay connected to the other molecules, opposed strong acids or bases that will completely dissociate into either the enthalpy or hydroxide ions. A good weak acid to use is acetic acid (CH3COOH), which is commonly found in vinegar. Another thing to keep in mind is how this relates to Le Chateliers Principle, which means for acetic acid that if a base were added, the equilibrium would shift to the right to exigency to seduce more hydrogen ions, and if an acid were added, the equilibrium would shift left to want to produce more conjugate base. Lastly, a good buffer should hurl equal amounts of a weak acid and a conjugate base, which is do experimenta lly.Materials and MethodsMaterials usedThree 250 mL beakersOne 50 mL graduated cylinderOne 10 mL graduated cylinderAn stranger weak acidKa=CH3COO/CH3COOHpH=-logH+H+ =10-pHKa=(H+*WA)/HWAProceduresObtain three 250 mL beakers, and a 10 mL and a 50 mL graduated cylinder.To the depression beaker, add a pipette bulb of the unknown weak acid and 110 mL of distilled weewee.Measure 50 mL of the acid solution and add it to each of the remaining two beakers, and thusly wash it out and keep the beaker.Label one beaker HWA, or acid, and the other WA, or conjugate base.Fill burette with an NaOH solution and add two to three drops of phenolphthalein indication to WA beaker and titrate solution using base in burette to index number end point, which will be signaled through a pink deform change, so HWA will be converted to WA.Determine the volume of base added to WA beaker during titration and add that same volume of water to the HWA beaker so that the HWA=WA.Make an optimal buffer by mixing 20 mL of HWA and 20 mL WA in the third beaker.Prepare pH meter by regularizing it with standard solutions of pH 4 and 7.Take pH of optimal buffer and suppose H+ from pH reading.Determine Ka care for and show calculations to TA, and a bleak buffer will be assigned to be made.Using assigned buffer, determine H+.Use Ka equation to determine volume of conjugate base needed when 10 mL of acid is used, and use Ka value from step 10, H+ value from pH, and 10 mL to replace CH3COOH to find volume of CH3COO needed.Make a new buffer using these volumes in a clean beaker, then take the pH of the new buffer to see how close the found pH is to the assigned value.Get two 50 mL beakers and add 5 mL of new buffer to one beaker and 5 mL of distilled water to the other.Add five drops of NaOH to each beaker and read pH for each one and record both.Thoroughly wash out small beakers and recapitulate step 13.Add five drops of HCl to each beaker and read pH for each one and record both.Clean up and t urn in data sheet.Results Data and Calculations0.10 M NaOH added to 50 mL of acid mixture sign Burette ReadingmLFinal Burette Reading34.7 mLVolume of NaOH Added16.3 mLpH of Optimal Buffer4.7Ka of Unknown loose Acid2*10-510-4.7=2*10-5=KaAssigned pH of new buffer to make 4.85New Buffer DataH+ needed1.41*10-5Ka H+=(Ka/H+)1.42AHWA=(Ka/H+)1.42Volume of A14.2 mLVolume of HWA10 mLpH of New Buffer4.84(2*10-5)/(1.41*10-5)=1.42Test of New BufferpH of Distilled Water with Acid2.88pH of New Buffer with Acid4.5pH of Distilled Water with Base10.9pH of New Buffer with Base5.18Discussion/ConclusionIn conclusion, the results mulish that the buffer was effective at stabilizing the pH of both solutions containing distilled water and either an acid or a base added. The results also showed that the new buffer pH was very similar to the assigned pH, indicating that the overall reactions in this experiment were precise and accurate. A buffer is a solution that controls the pH of other solutions it is a dded in from fluctuating, and it is made by mixing equal amounts of a weak acid with its conjugate base. The reason it needs to be a weak acid because it will not dissociate fully when added in a solution, so the hydrogen ions will mostly be inherent and not free floating. This would be able to help the pH of the solution in which it is added stable when combined with the conjugate base that is formed when the hydrogen ion dissociates from its original molecule from which it was connected.The Ka of the weak acid used in this experiment was determined after titrating NaOH to the acid mixture until the indicator turned perch pink and then taking the pH reading of the titrated solution and using the 10-pH formula to find H+ which equaled the Ka of the weak acid. The new buffer was then made when the newly assigned pH was taken, the H+ needed to achieve that new pH was determined, the Ka value by the needed H+ value was divided, and the decimal for the product was locomote one decima l place to the right, since the amount of HWA needed was 10 mL, and the pH was then determined from that solution, and it matched very closely to the assigned pH. Lastly, although not major, there was one experimental erroneous belief that occurred when the solutions prepared in the first federal agency of the lab were accidentally disposed of early, but a new solution was made again which was the same pH of the previous solution, so that error did not affect the overall results of this experiment.

Gherkin and Pomegranate Cultivation

Gherkin and pomegranate tree CultivationAbstractHorticulture is an cardinal comp adeptnt of farming write up for a actu wholey probative sh be in the Indian economy. wage make up consumer income and changing lifestyles ar creating big markets for postgraduate- harbor horticultural products in India as headspring as end-to-end the orbit. Among these, the most important t altogether gear- cheer backup products are growths and vegs. This speculate was conducted to take a great dealcel the proportional degree profit and agonisticness of pomegranate tree and gherkin which are the important inappropriate replace earner among fruit and veg vagabonds contended from India.The chapiter info was collected from Tumkur and Bijapur district of Karnataka, India and back upary data was collected from have-to doe with judicature institutions, APEDA and likewise from merchandiseers of fruits and vegetables. The Policy outline ground substance (PAM) was s elected as the analytical apparatus to analyse the trade fight, proportional benefit, and the degree of goernment interventions in the output and merchandise of gherkin and pomegranate. The policy distortions were measured through indicators of PAM. Garret rank technique was utilize to analyse the constraints in the output and merchandiseationation of the selected cut backs.EPC of Gherkin (0.5) and pomegranate (0.45) determine which found to be less than one indicates that producers are not defend through policy interventions. Whereas DRC (0.27 0.28) and PCR (0.43 0.59) care fors of Gherkin and Pomegranate respectively shows positive, accessible as well as private profit which indicates that, India has a matched and comparative advantage in their take. The result for Garret ranking in national of gherkin shows that skilled labour and lack of superior quality are the development constraints in takings and merchandise of gherkin respectively. In case of pomegr anate non approachability of skilled labour, soaring up incidence of pest and diseases, lack of transportation facilities, spicy residual effect of pesticide are the major constrain in takings and merchandiseation.The oerall result shows that the culture as well as exportation of gherkin and pomegranate is economically profitable and efficient.Key Words Gherkin, Pomegranate, PAM, EPC and DRC disputation of Acronyms uncertainDefinitionAPEDAAgricultural and Processed sustenance Products merchandise education lateralityCIF make up Insurance and FreightCrores10 one million million millionDRC national imagery CostEPCEffective Protection CoefficientEUEuropean centreFAOSTATFood and Agriculture Organization StatisticsFOBFree On resoundFYM bring on Yard ManurehaHectaresHEIAHorticulture exportation Improvement fel dispiritedshipkgKilogramMHAMillion HectareMTMillion TonsNHB guinea pig Horticulture get along withNPCI token(a) Protection Coefficient on InputsNPCONominal Prote ction Coefficient on byputsNPV unclutter Present pryPAMPolicy Analysis MatrixPCR sequestered Cost RatioINRIndian RupeesUAE united Arab Emi targetsUK unify KingdomUNCOMTRADEUnited Nations trade good Trade StatisticsUNFAOUnited Nations Food and Agriculture Organizationthe StatesUnited States of America1. Introduction1.1 BackgroundIndian agriculture is vested with the superhuman tariff of feeding over more than one billion pile. Out of total, 72% of Indias population live in farming(prenominal) areas, get ahead three- cardinalth of the rural populations imagine on agriculture and allied activities for their livelihoods. The kick in harvest in agriculture in India is hassle with problems most importantly, outlandish bristleth slowed sighthearted to 2.1% amidst 1998-99 and 2004-05. It is largely due to a decline in the nutriment instill vault of heaven that grew at merely 0.6%. Given the advanced school habituation of the myopic on agriculture, the stagnation in this sector is enduely labored to faint poverty reduction in India (Reddy, 2007).Given the present scenario, the adjacent school principal to be addressed is how agricultural egress can be accelerated. The principal can be answered through by diversifying the drug addiction name towards high nurse agricultural commodities in general and high pass judgment horticultural products in particular such(prenominal) as fruits and vegetables. In new eld in that respect has been a great deal of interest among policymakers and trade analysts in the constituent of horticultural products as a principle heart and soul of agricultural diversification and foreign exchange earnings in create countries. horticultural products grant high income e moveicity of lease as income goes up the shoot raises rapidly. It grows especially in middle and high income developing countries. As people are more cautious on health and nutrition, there is a paradigm shift from high fat, high choles terol aliments such as meat and live stock products to low fat and low cholesterol foods such as fruits and vegetables. As a result, the sphere has changed its fear towards high set agricultural products. Hence, it is crucial to be combative in the humankind market to reap the authority gains of increase and ripening human demand for horticultural products such as fruits and vegetables. Thus, the purpose of the present study attempts to pronounce the consequences of supranational trade and fighting of Indian horticulture with special savoir-faire to pomegranate and gherkin crops. In the new past, these two crops got high export possible and acquire good foreign exchange.1.2 Studies on export of fruits and vegetablesThere are legion(predicate) studies related to export of horticultural crops especially fruits and vegetables from India. Chiniwar (2009) explained the numerous opportunities and challenges of the horticulture sector and spy that there is a tremendous p otential drop for Indian pomegranates in the international market. He examined the crop of pomegranate exports from India. The study revealed that the growth of pomegranate exports from India is yield in comparision to the potential for its exports. Tamanna et al. (1999) examined the export potential of selected fruits from India by utilize Nominal Protection Coefficient (NPC). The results indicate that the exports of Indian fruits are highly competitive in the world market. Nalini et al. (2008) observed that India has made tremendous progress in the export of cuke and gherkin products during the past 15 long time (1990-2005). The export has change magnitude by about 129 times with an impressive course of instructionly compound growth rate of 37.46 partage, as against only 4.38 portion in the world market. An change magnitude and high abide by of Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) and a positive and increase honor for Revealed Symmetric Comparative Advantage (RSCA) h ave indicated high potential for their export. whiz pct increase in volume of international trade in cuke and gherkin may increase the demand from India by 5.96 percent. This indicates that India is highly competitive in the export of cuke and gherkin. It has ample scope to move on increase its export. Gulati et al. (1994) polld the export competitiveness of selected agricultural commodities and identified the constraints in the export of fresh fruits, vegetables, processed fruits and vegetables.The above studies are related to export performance, growth, and constraints of fruits and vegetables. roughly of these studies focused on aspects pertaining to export of fruits and vegetables. There are no studies on export policy especially related to efficiency and comparative advantage in world market. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to analyze the export competitiveness of pomegranate and gherkin by using Policy Analysis Matrix (PAM). The study has a high scope becaus e competitiveness has fit a key issue in the international market for export exploitation of fruits and vegetables.1.3 Research objectivesIn the present study, the export competitiveness of high value horticultural crops of India is analyzed. To be very precise, the study analyzes the competitiveness of gherkin and pomegranate in the world market. It also compares the advantages and constraints in the export of these crops with the following objectives and proposed hypodissertation, which testament be tested based on the results and conclusion.Specific objectives To assess the export competitiveness of Gherkin and PomegranateTo examine the mathematical product and export constraints of Gherkin and PomegranateHypodissertation Export of gherkin and pomegranate are competitive in international markets1.4 social structure of the dissertationThe study contains the results of the analysis of export competitiveness of horticultural crops in India. In the present study, opportunities are analyzed, constraints in action and export of gherkins and pomegranates from India. We further analyze the competitiveness and comparative advantage of these two crops in international market. The expatiate instruction of this analysis is discussed in the following variances of the study.The first slit of the thesis gives us an introduction and background on the nature of the problem, facts on the dynamics and underlying causes diversifying the consumption pattern of high value horticultural commodities. further, a brief overview of existing studies on Indian agricultural and horticultural growth, export performance, and constraints will be discussed. The investigate question is broken down into specialized objectives and a possible hypothesis has been put forth.The second discussion section of the thesis will give a general overview of fruit and vegetable scenario in the world as well as in India. The section also explains the importance of selected fruit and vegetabl e by considering production, export and foreign exchange earnings which will help us to understand the export competitiveness of these crops from India.The third section deals with methodological framework which deals with the concepts and competitiveness of high value horticultural crops from India focusing on the application of PAM model for the study. In the corresponding chapter, the current literature and outline of the major definitions for competitiveness and comparative advantage are studied. The above proposed model will be used as a tool to address the research objectives followed by data description. one-quarter section highlights the findings of the research from the proposed model using collected information on pomegranate and gherkin cultivation, and their export. Finally, the proposed hypothesis is tested and the results inferred.The final section summarizes the entirely research findings and provides meaningful policy implications.2. Scenario of fruits and vegetabl es in India and the world2.1 introduction scenario of fruits and vegetables2.1.1 full(prenominal) value agricultural productionRising consumer income and changing lifestyles are creating bigger markets for high value agricultural products throughout the world. Among these, the most important high value export sector is horticulture, especially fruits and vegetables. The growing markets for these products present an luck for the farmers of developing countries to diversify their production out of staple grains and raise their income. annual growth rates on the order of 8 to 10 percent in high value agricultural products is promising development (Fig.1), as the production, process and marketing of these products create a lot of needed affair in rural areas. The rapid growth in high value exports has been part of fundamental and broad reaching trend towards globalization of the agro food system. dietetic changes, trade reform and technical changes in the food constancy have contr ibuted to the growth of high value agriculture and trade ( area Bank, 2008).2.1.2 World production of fruit and vegetablesThe production of fruit and vegetables all over the world grew by 30 percent amongst 1980 to 1990 and by 56 percent between 1990 to 2003. Much of this growth occurred in china where production grew up by 134 percent in 1980 and climbed to 200 percent by 1990 (UNFAO 2003). At present the world production of fruits and vegetables reached to 512 MT and 946.7MT respectively ( dodge 1 5).Vegetables china is currently the worlds largest producer of vegetables, with the production 448.9 MT with an area of 23.9 MHA (47%) ( board 1), whereas India is in the second set up with the production of 125.8 MT with an area of 7.8 MHA (13%) followed by USA (4%), jokester (3%) etcetera(Indian Horticulture informationbase, 2008) (Fig.2). Among the vegetable crops gherkin is considered for the study as it is one of the most important vegetable all over the world. disconcert 2 shows the international production of cuke vine and gherkin from antithetical part of the world during 2007-08. mainland China, Turkey, Iran, Russia and USA are the world largest producers of cucumber and gherkin (Table 3), whereas India posture in the production is 34th but it reached 1st (Table 3) and fifty-fifth (Table 4) carriage in export of provisionally preserved and fresh cucumber gherkin respectively.Table 1 study vegetables producing countries in the world (2007-08) field demesne(000 ha) product(000 MT)Productivity(MT/ha)China2393644898319India780312588716USA13333807529Turkey9962445425Russia9701651617Egypt5981604127Iran6411599325Italy5281358726Spain3791267633Japan4331193828 separates1695722262513 aggregate54573946774 stock Indian Horticulture Database (2008)Table 2 International production of cucumber and gherkin (2007-08) unsophisticatedProduction (MT)Share (%)China2806200062.9Turkey18759194.21Iran, Muslim res publica17200003.86Russian federation14 one hundred00 3.16USA9200002.06Ukraine7750001.74Japan6340001.42Egypt6150001.38Indonesia6000001.34Spain5 ampere-second001.14Mexico5000001.12Poland4920001.10Iraq4800001.08Netherland4450001.00India1200000.27Others545202412.22 World 44610943100 showtime Author, FAO (2008)Table 3 Major exporting countries of fresh cucumber and gherkin (2007) orbit measure (USD)Share (%)Spain55708830.13Mexico43736923.65Netherland41982422.70Canada817074.42Germany444372.40Turkey403002.18Greece389202.10Iran277681.50Belgium253611.37USA163130.88India2350.01Others1598158.64 World 1849137 stemma Data from Agricultural and Processed food products Export development countenance (APEDA), India.Table 4 Major exporting countries of preserved cucumber and gherkinCountry Value (USD)Share (%)India3347649.39China1675424.72Turkey41936.19Netherlands33975.01Belgium26703.94Vietnam403002.11Sri Lanka10031.48Germany9251.37Spain5960.88USA9920.87 World 65040 reservoir U.N COMTRADE (2007)Fruits World fruit production has steady risen f or the past quaternion twelvemonths (see Appendix 3 ). Table 5 shows the largest fresh fruit producers from disparate countries during 2007-08. China is the worlds largest fruit producer, producing 19 percent of the world fruits. India ranks second in the list of world producer invoice 12 percent of the worlds production followed by Brazil, where 7 percent of the worlds fruit was grown. (Figure 3) As production is increase in China at alarming rate compare to some other top producing countries. Production growth almost normd 6 percent per social class in China, while production growth in India intermediated 2.73 percent per year. The EU experienced the lower yearly growth rate of 0.89 percent. Whereas, the production in USA and Brazil has been relatively constant over the period, with average annual growth rates of 0.61 percent for the former and 0.34 percent for the later. Other countries Mexico, southerly Africa and Chile have experienced slightly higher average annual pro duction growth rates of 2.12, 2.56 and 1.3 percent respectively over the equivalent period (FAOSTAT 2008). Among all fruits pomegranate is considered for the present study. Figure 4 shows India is the world largest producer of pomegranate with 900 MT (36%) followed by Iran (31%), Iraq (3%), USA (4%) etc. everywhere the years Indias export rate for pomegranate has grown steadily to outlay of INR0.61 million (US$13741) in 2007-08 with the persona of 1.2 percent (Table 6).Table 5 Major fruit producing countries in the world (2007-08)CountryArea(000 ha)Production(000 MT)Productivity(MT/ha)China95879441810India57756350311Brazil17773681821USA11682496221Italy12461789114Spain1835152938Mexico11001504114Turkey10491239012Iran12561210210Indonesia8461161514Others228412080369 be48481512070 ascendant FAO Indian Horticulture Database (2008)Table 6 Pomegranate export from diametrical parts of the world (2007)Country Value (USD)Share (%)Thailand17278115.06Spain13891112.11Vietnam845327.37Mexico 677395.91Netherlands638585.57Madagascar538224.69Israel452193.94Uzbekistan441283.85Colombia404593.53Azerbaijan379773.31France369753.22Germany177501.55India137411.20Others30956527.45 World 1127457100 opening Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development authorisation (APEDA), India2.2 Scenario of fruits and vegetables in India.Horticulture is an important component of agriculture accounting for a very significant share in the Indian economy. It is identified as one of the potential sector for harnessing Indias competitive advantage in international trade. Further it prepares India to secure an overall trade target of 1% or more in the share of world trade. Meanwhile, making the country self-sufficient in the last few decades, horticulture has played a very significant role in earning foreign exchange through export.Horticultural crops cover about 8.5 percent of total cropped area (20 MHA) (Table 7) with annual production of 207 MT, and productivity of 10.3 MT per he ctare during the year 2007-08 (FAO Indian Horticulture Database 2008). Among the horticultural crops fruits and vegetables play an important role, whereas exports of fruits and vegetables have change magnitude over the years (Table 8). During 2004-05 export of fruits and vegetables was INR 13637.13 million as against INR 24116.57 million during 2006-07 (APEDA, 2008)Table 7 Area, production and productivity of horticultural crops in India course of studyArea (MHA)Production (MT)Productivity (MT/ha) )2001-0216.6145.88.82002-0316.3144.48.92003-0419.2153.3212004-0521.1170.88.12005-0618.7182.89.82006-0719.4191.89.92007-0820.1207.010.3 address FAO Indian Horticulture Database (2008)Table 8 Export of horticultural produce in IndiaProducts2004-052005-062006-07 standardValueQuantityValueQuantityValueFloriculture seeds344962871426593922500487713Fresh Fruits vegetables129653013637146504016587198387324117Processed fruits vegetables32529396145018261359554994917316 thoroughgoing16563192 612272009525341051258387491459Source APEDA, India Note Qty MT, value Million INRVegetables In vegetable production, India is undermentioned to China with a production of 125.8 million tonnes from 7.8 million hectares with a share of 13 percent in relation to world production (Table 9). The per capital consumption of vegetables is 120 grams per day (APEDA 2009). In case of Fresh vegetable Indias export has been increased from INR 433.14 Crore in 2006-07 to Rs 489.49 Crore in 2007-08. Major Export Destinations of these vegetables are UAE, UK, Nepal, and Saudi-Arabian Arabia. (APEDA, 2009)Table 9 Area, production and productivity of vegetable crops in India YearArea (MHA)Production (MT)Productivity (MT/ha) )2001-0261568862214.42002-0360928481513.92003-0460828833414.52004-05674410124615.02005-06721311139915.42006-07758411501115.22007-08780312588716.1Source FAO Indian Horticulture Database (2008)Among all vegetables gherkin is considered for the present study due to following rea sons. Indias export of gherkin has been steadily increased since 1997-98. It accounts for 24,490 tonnes of gherkins having an export potential of INR 50.27 crore as against 35,242 tonnes worth of INR 69.86 crore in 1999-2000 (Venkatesh, 2003). In recent year gherkin export has been increased to 61.5 million tonnes with a trade value of INR1465.5 million during 2007-08 (UNFAO Export Data, 2009).2.2.1 Production and export importance of gherkin in India Gherkin crop is creation selected for the present study. It is regarded as HEIA crop especially a hybridizing crop. Gherkin cultivation and processing started in India in the early 90s and presently well-behaved over 19,500 acres in the three southern states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Although gherkin can grow virtually in any part of the country, the ideal conditions essential for growth prevail in these three states where the growing season extends throughout the year. It requires nice water and temperature bet ween 15-36 degree centigrade and the right type of soil. The crop takes 85 days to reach the required maturity level. Productivity is somewhat four to five tonnes per acre and the best months are from February to March followed by June to August. India is a major exporter of provisionally preserved gherkin. Table 10 11 shows the cucumber and gherkin export from India. In India, Karnataka stands first in export, where cultivation is steadily growing since 2001-02 accounting for a worth of INR 1200 million. During 2006-07 gherkins accounts to INR 3133 million which has been exported (Table 12).Table 10 cuke and gherkin exports from India (2007-08)Country Value( Million INR) Quantity (Tonnes) Share (%) )UAE1.96142.7517.55Bangladesh1.92290.0017.17Netherland1.7893.1015.92Russia1.6683.5014.91Estonia0.8043.947.17Nepal0.7574.426.75Oman0.7570.006.74Spain0.5531.824.95France0.4720.214.27Others0.5126.424.56 Total 11.20 876.18 100SourceGherkin and Pomegranate CultivationGherkin and Pomegranat e CultivationAbstractHorticulture is an important component of agriculture accounting for a very significant share in the Indian economy. Rising consumer income and changing lifestyles are creating bigger markets for high-value horticultural products in India as well as throughout the world. Among these, the most important high-value export products are fruits and vegetables. This study was conducted to analyze the comparative advantage and competitiveness of pomegranate and gherkin which are the important foreign exchange earner among fruit and vegetable crops exported from India.The primary data was collected from Tumkur and Bijapur district of Karnataka, India and secondary data was collected from concerned government institutions, APEDA and also from exporters of fruits and vegetables. The Policy Analysis Matrix (PAM) was selected as the analytical tool to analyse the export competitiveness, comparative advantage, and the degree of government interventions in the production and export of gherkin and pomegranate. The policy distortions were measured through indicators of PAM. Garret ranking technique was used to analyse the constraints in the production and export of the selected crops.EPC of Gherkin (0.5) and pomegranate (0.45) values which found to be less than one indicates that producers are not protected through policy interventions. Whereas DRC (0.27 0.28) and PCR (0.43 0.59) values of Gherkin and Pomegranate respectively shows positive, social as well as private profit which indicates that, India has a competitive and comparative advantage in their production. The result for Garret ranking in case of gherkin shows that skilled labour and lack of superior quality are the major constraints in production and export of gherkin respectively. In case of pomegranate non availability of skilled labour, high incidence of pest and diseases, lack of transportation facilities, high residual effect of pesticide are the major constrain in production and export.T he overall result shows that the cultivation as well as export of gherkin and pomegranate is economically profitable and efficient.Key Words Gherkin, Pomegranate, PAM, EPC and DRCList of AcronymsVariableDefinitionAPEDAAgricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development AuthorityCIFCost Insurance and FreightCrores10 millionDRCDomestic Resource CostEPCEffective Protection CoefficientEUEuropean UnionFAOSTATFood and Agriculture Organization StatisticsFOBFree On BorderFYMFarm Yard ManurehaHectaresHEIAHorticulture Export Improvement AssociationkgKilogramMHAMillion HectareMTMillion TonsNHBNational Horticulture BoardNPCINominal Protection Coefficient on InputsNPCONominal Protection Coefficient on OutputsNPVNet Present ValuePAMPolicy Analysis MatrixPCRPrivate Cost RatioINRIndian RupeesUAEUnited Arab EmiratesUKUnited KingdomUNCOMTRADEUnited Nations Commodity Trade StatisticsUNFAOUnited Nations Food and Agriculture OrganizationUSAUnited States of America1. Introduction1.1 BackgroundIn dian agriculture is vested with the herculean responsibility of feeding over more than one billion people. Out of total, 72% of Indias population live in rural areas, further three-fourth of the rural populations depend on agriculture and allied activities for their livelihoods. The present growth in agriculture in India is hassle with problems most importantly, agricultural growth slowed down to 2.1% between 1998-99 and 2004-05. It is largely due to a decline in the food grain sector that grew at merely 0.6%. Given the high dependence of the poor on agriculture, the stagnation in this sector is currently threatening to stall poverty reduction in India (Reddy, 2007).Given the present scenario, the immediate question to be addressed is how agricultural growth can be accelerated. The question can be answered through by diversifying the consumption pattern towards high value agricultural commodities in general and high value horticultural products in particular such as fruits and veget ables. In recent years there has been a great deal of interest among policymakers and trade analysts in the role of horticultural products as a principle means of agricultural diversification and foreign exchange earnings in developing countries. Horticultural products have high income elasticity of demand as income goes up the demand raises rapidly. It grows especially in middle and high income developing countries. As people are more cautious on health and nutrition, there is a paradigm shift from high fat, high cholesterol foods such as meat and live stock products to low fat and low cholesterol foods such as fruits and vegetables. As a result, the world has changed its attention towards high value agricultural products. Hence, it is crucial to be competitive in the world market to reap the potential gains of increased and growing world demand for horticultural products such as fruits and vegetables. Thus, the purpose of the present study attempts to evaluate the consequences of international trade and competitiveness of Indian horticulture with special reference to pomegranate and gherkin crops. In the recent past, these two crops got high export potential and earned good foreign exchange.1.2 Studies on export of fruits and vegetablesThere are many studies related to export of horticultural crops especially fruits and vegetables from India. Chiniwar (2009) explained the numerous opportunities and challenges of the horticulture sector and observed that there is a tremendous potential for Indian pomegranates in the global market. He examined the growth of pomegranate exports from India. The study revealed that the growth of pomegranate exports from India is moderate in comparision to the potential for its exports. Tamanna et al. (1999) examined the export potential of selected fruits from India by using Nominal Protection Coefficient (NPC). The results indicate that the exports of Indian fruits are highly competitive in the world market. Nalini et al. (2008) observed that India has made tremendous progress in the export of cucumber and gherkin products during the past 15 years (1990-2005). The export has increased by about 129 times with an impressive annual compound growth rate of 37.46 percent, as against only 4.38 percent in the world market. An increasing and high value of Revealed Comparative Advantage (RCA) and a positive and increasing value for Revealed Symmetric Comparative Advantage (RSCA) have indicated high potential for their export. One percent increase in volume of international trade in cucumber and gherkin may increase the demand from India by 5.96 percent. This indicates that India is highly competitive in the export of cucumber and gherkin. It has ample scope to further increase its export. Gulati et al. (1994) analyzed the export competitiveness of selected agricultural commodities and identified the constraints in the export of fresh fruits, vegetables, processed fruits and vegetables.The above studies are related to export performance, growth, and constraints of fruits and vegetables. Most of these studies focused on aspects pertaining to export of fruits and vegetables. There are no studies on export policy especially related to efficiency and comparative advantage in world market. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to analyze the export competitiveness of pomegranate and gherkin by using Policy Analysis Matrix (PAM). The study has a high scope because competitiveness has become a key issue in the international market for export development of fruits and vegetables.1.3 Research objectivesIn the present study, the export competitiveness of high value horticultural crops of India is analyzed. To be very precise, the study analyzes the competitiveness of gherkin and pomegranate in the world market. It also compares the advantages and constraints in the export of these crops with the following objectives and proposed hypothesis, which will be tested based on the results and conclusion.S pecific objectives To assess the export competitiveness of Gherkin and PomegranateTo examine the production and export constraints of Gherkin and Pomegranate speculation Export of gherkin and pomegranate are competitive in international markets1.4 Structure of the thesisThe study contains the results of the analysis of export competitiveness of horticultural crops in India. In the present study, opportunities are analyzed, constraints in production and export of gherkins and pomegranates from India. We further analyze the competitiveness and comparative advantage of these two crops in international market. The detailed information of this analysis is discussed in the following sections of the study.The first section of the thesis gives us an introduction and background on the nature of the problem, facts on the dynamics and underlying causes diversifying the consumption pattern of high value horticultural commodities. Further, a brief overview of existing studies on Indian agricult ural and horticultural growth, export performance, and constraints will be discussed. The research question is broken down into specific objectives and a possible hypothesis has been put forth.The second section of the thesis will give a general overview of fruit and vegetable scenario in the world as well as in India. The section also explains the importance of selected fruit and vegetable by considering production, export and foreign exchange earnings which will help us to understand the export competitiveness of these crops from India.The third section deals with methodological framework which deals with the concepts and competitiveness of high value horticultural crops from India focusing on the application of PAM model for the study. In the same chapter, the current literature and outline of the major definitions for competitiveness and comparative advantage are studied. The above proposed model will be used as a tool to address the research objectives followed by data descript ion.Fourth section highlights the findings of the research from the proposed model using collected information on pomegranate and gherkin cultivation, and their export. Finally, the proposed hypothesis is tested and the results inferred.The final section summarizes the whole research findings and provides meaningful policy implications.2. Scenario of fruits and vegetables in India and the world2.1 World scenario of fruits and vegetables2.1.1 High value agricultural productionRising consumer income and changing lifestyles are creating bigger markets for high value agricultural products throughout the world. Among these, the most important high value export sector is horticulture, especially fruits and vegetables. The growing markets for these products present an opportunity for the farmers of developing countries to diversify their production out of staple grains and raise their income. Annual growth rates on the order of 8 to 10 percent in high value agricultural products is promisi ng development (Fig.1), as the production, processing and marketing of these products create a lot of needed employment in rural areas. The rapid growth in high value exports has been part of fundamental and broad reaching trend towards globalization of the agro food system. Dietary changes, trade reform and technical changes in the food industry have contributed to the growth of high value agriculture and trade (World Bank, 2008).2.1.2 World production of fruit and vegetablesThe production of fruit and vegetables all over the world grew by 30 percent between 1980 to 1990 and by 56 percent between 1990 to 2003. Much of this growth occurred in China where production grew up by 134 percent in 1980 and climbed to 200 percent by 1990 (UNFAO 2003). At present the world production of fruits and vegetables reached to 512 MT and 946.7MT respectively (Table 1 5).Vegetables China is currently the worlds largest producer of vegetables, with the production 448.9 MT with an area of 23.9 MHA (4 7%) (Table 1), whereas India is in the 2nd position with the production of 125.8 MT with an area of 7.8 MHA (13%) followed by USA (4%), Turkey (3%) etc (Indian Horticulture Database, 2008) (Fig.2). Among the vegetable crops gherkin is considered for the study as it is one of the most important vegetable all over the world. Table 2 shows the international production of cucumber and gherkin from different parts of the world during 2007-08. China, Turkey, Iran, Russia and USA are the world largest producers of cucumber and gherkin (Table 3), whereas India position in the production is 34th but it reached 1st (Table 3) and 55th (Table 4) position in export of provisionally preserved and fresh cucumber gherkin respectively.Table 1 Major vegetables producing countries in the world (2007-08)CountryArea(000 ha)Production(000 MT)Productivity(MT/ha)China2393644898319India780312588716USA13333807529Turkey9962445425Russia9701651617Egypt5981604127Iran6411599325Italy5281358726Spain3791267633Japan4 331193828Others1695722262513Total54573946774Source Indian Horticulture Database (2008)Table 2 International production of cucumber and gherkin (2007-08)CountryProduction (MT)Share (%)China2806200062.9Turkey18759194.21Iran, Islamic republic17200003.86Russian federation14100003.16USA9200002.06Ukraine7750001.74Japan6340001.42Egypt6150001.38Indonesia6000001.34Spain5100001.14Mexico5000001.12Poland4920001.10Iraq4800001.08Netherland4450001.00India1200000.27Others545202412.22 World 44610943100Source Author, FAO (2008)Table 3 Major exporting countries of fresh cucumber and gherkin (2007)Country Value (USD)Share (%)Spain55708830.13Mexico43736923.65Netherland41982422.70Canada817074.42Germany444372.40Turkey403002.18Greece389202.10Iran277681.50Belgium253611.37USA163130.88India2350.01Others1598158.64 World 1849137Source Data from Agricultural and Processed food products Export development Authority (APEDA), India.Table 4 Major exporting countries of preserved cucumber and gherkinCountry Value (USD)Share (%)India3347649.39China1675424.72Turkey41936.19Netherlands33975.01Belgium26703.94Vietnam403002.11Sri Lanka10031.48Germany9251.37Spain5960.88USA9920.87 World 65040 Source U.N COMTRADE (2007)Fruits World fruit production has steadily risen for the past four years (see Appendix 3 ). Table 5 shows the largest fresh fruit producers from different countries during 2007-08. China is the worlds largest fruit producer, producing 19 percent of the world fruits. India ranks second in the list of world producer accounting 12 percent of the worlds production followed by Brazil, where 7 percent of the worlds fruit was grown. (Figure 3) As production is increasing in China at alarming rate compare to other top producing countries. Production growth almost averaged 6 percent per year in China, while production growth in India averaged 2.73 percent per year. The EU experienced the lower annual growth rate of 0.89 percent. Whereas, the production in USA and Brazil has been relatively co nstant over the period, with average annual growth rates of 0.61 percent for the former and 0.34 percent for the later. Other countries Mexico, South Africa and Chile have experienced slightly higher average annual production growth rates of 2.12, 2.56 and 1.3 percent respectively over the same period (FAOSTAT 2008). Among all fruits pomegranate is considered for the present study. Figure 4 shows India is the world largest producer of pomegranate with 900 MT (36%) followed by Iran (31%), Iraq (3%), USA (4%) etc. Over the years Indias export rate for pomegranate has grown steadily to worth of INR0.61 million (US$13741) in 2007-08 with the share of 1.2 percent (Table 6).Table 5 Major fruit producing countries in the world (2007-08)CountryArea(000 ha)Production(000 MT)Productivity(MT/ha)China95879441810India57756350311Brazil17773681821USA11682496221Italy12461789114Spain1835152938Mexico11001504114Turkey10491239012Iran12561210210Indonesia8461161514Others228412080369Total48481512070Source FAO Indian Horticulture Database (2008)Table 6 Pomegranate export from different parts of the world (2007)Country Value (USD)Share (%)Thailand17278115.06Spain13891112.11Vietnam845327.37Mexico677395.91Netherlands638585.57Madagascar538224.69Israel452193.94Uzbekistan441283.85Colombia404593.53Azerbaijan379773.31France369753.22Germany177501.55India137411.20Others30956527.45 World 1127457100Source Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA), India2.2 Scenario of fruits and vegetables in India.Horticulture is an important component of agriculture accounting for a very significant share in the Indian economy. It is identified as one of the potential sector for harnessing Indias competitive advantage in international trade. Further it prepares India to achieve an overall trade target of 1% or more in the share of world trade. Meanwhile, making the country self-sufficient in the last few decades, horticulture has played a very significant role in earning foreign exchange through export.Horticultural crops cover approximately 8.5 percent of total cropped area (20 MHA) (Table 7) with annual production of 207 MT, and productivity of 10.3 MT per hectare during the year 2007-08 (FAO Indian Horticulture Database 2008). Among the horticultural crops fruits and vegetables play an important role, whereas exports of fruits and vegetables have increased over the years (Table 8). During 2004-05 export of fruits and vegetables was INR 13637.13 million as against INR 24116.57 million during 2006-07 (APEDA, 2008)Table 7 Area, production and productivity of horticultural crops in India YearArea (MHA)Production (MT)Productivity (MT/ha) )2001-0216.6145.88.82002-0316.3144.48.92003-0419.2153.3212004-0521.1170.88.12005-0618.7182.89.82006-0719.4191.89.92007-0820.1207.010.3Source FAO Indian Horticulture Database (2008)Table 8 Export of horticultural produce in IndiaProducts2004-052005-062006-07QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValueFloriculture see ds344962871426593922500487713Fresh Fruits vegetables129653013637146504016587198387324117Processed fruits vegetables32529396145018261359554994917316Total16563192612272009525341051258387491459Source APEDA, India Note Qty MT, value Million INRVegetables In vegetable production, India is next to China with a production of 125.8 million tonnes from 7.8 million hectares with a share of 13 percent in relation to world production (Table 9). The per capital consumption of vegetables is 120 grams per day (APEDA 2009). In case of Fresh vegetable Indias export has been increased from INR 433.14 Crore in 2006-07 to Rs 489.49 Crore in 2007-08. Major Export Destinations of these vegetables are UAE, UK, Nepal, and Saudi Arabia. (APEDA, 2009)Table 9 Area, production and productivity of vegetable crops in India YearArea (MHA)Production (MT)Productivity (MT/ha) )2001-0261568862214.42002-0360928481513.92003-0460828833414.52004-05674410124615.02005-06721311139915.42006-07758411501115.22007-087803 12588716.1Source FAO Indian Horticulture Database (2008)Among all vegetables gherkin is considered for the present study due to following reasons. Indias export of gherkin has been steadily increased since 1997-98. It accounts for 24,490 tonnes of gherkins having an export potential of INR 50.27 crore as against 35,242 tonnes worth of INR 69.86 crore in 1999-2000 (Venkatesh, 2003). In recent year gherkin export has been increased to 61.5 million tonnes with a trade value of INR1465.5 million during 2007-08 (UNFAO Export Data, 2009).2.2.1 Production and export importance of gherkin in India Gherkin crop is being selected for the present study. It is regarded as HEIA crop especially a hybrid crop. Gherkin cultivation and processing started in India in the early 90s and presently cultivated over 19,500 acres in the three southern states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Although gherkin can grow virtually in any part of the country, the ideal conditions required for growth prevail in these three states where the growing season extends throughout the year. It requires adequate water and temperature between 15-36 degree centigrade and the right type of soil. The crop takes 85 days to reach the required maturity level. Productivity is approximately four to five tonnes per acre and the best months are from February to March followed by June to August. India is a major exporter of provisionally preserved gherkin. Table 10 11 shows the cucumber and gherkin export from India. In India, Karnataka stands first in export, where cultivation is steadily growing since 2001-02 accounting for a worth of INR 1200 million. During 2006-07 gherkins accounts to INR 3133 million which has been exported (Table 12).Table 10 Cucumber and gherkin exports from India (2007-08)Country Value( Million INR) Quantity (Tonnes) Share (%) )UAE1.96142.7517.55Bangladesh1.92290.0017.17Netherland1.7893.1015.92Russia1.6683.5014.91Estonia0.8043.947.17Nepal0.7574.426.75Oman0.7570.006.74Spai n0.5531.824.95France0.4720.214.27Others0.5126.424.56 Total 11.20 876.18 100Source

Food Production: Using Lean Manufacturing Principles

Food written report victimisation controversy Manufacturing PrinciplesThe primary(prenominal) objective of the factories was to master heights economic growth. The onward motion in intersectioniveness has mystify need of diet industry to bow the competitive advantage of global market. The big problem or contend to nourishment industry is identifying the pay offs and bear upon the market price by master(prenominal)taining a good profit. The entirely solution is to rivet total turnout price. contention manufacturing is constitutionatic approach to identify and refuse the waste done continues remedyments. This root discusses how the deed dominions of slender manufacturing muckle be applied in provender outturn to increase intersectionion cleverness and pass off harvest-feastivity and quality. This typography first presents the persist concept and presents the carry outation of fee manufacturing organisation on some organization.Three chief(preno minal) factors that food return factories fear, poor and forte quality, increase of outturn cost, increase in crown beat. Production mitigatements should be based on the improvements of mathematical operationes as healthy as operation. Problems keep ass in any of the basic elements that constitute the mathematical increase ara. (Materials, exertioners, cable cars and tools, energy, manners, product). So I taper on lean manufacturing the program instalation help to improve in this area.Problem StatementWhy and how companies should implement lean manufacturing in food return ?1.3 Importance of the packThe main aim of the conceive is to present the main idea of the tumble manufacturing system, and the do good of applying it in the playing area of food toil, and identifying the kinds of wastes in achievement process, and the effect of the Lean manufacturing on food product and presenting some sheaths of successful companies that implemented the Lean manufa cturing.1.4 Research QuestionsWhen organizations implement lean manufacturing, it is more probably to make positive on food issue?1.5 Research ApproachThe data collected in this look for was stemmed from previous published articles. And present a successful example from companies impart be achieved good results by and by implement lean manufacturing program. The main target of this paper is to be applied as guide disembowel to food production companies in Egypt.II. Literature Review2.1 History of Lean Manufacturing. some of the concepts in LM or lean production originate from the Toyota Production System (TPS) and concur been implemented progressively throughout Toyotas operations gene score prison term in the 1950s. In 1980s Toyota had increasingly become famous for the capacity with which it had implemented Just-In-Time (JIT) manufacturing systems. Now, Toyota is often considered bingle of the close to efficacious and influential manufacturing companies in the world an d the friendship that put the standard for best get alongs in LM. LM has increasingly been applied by leading manufacturing companies throughout the world, lead by the major automobile manufactures and their equipment suppliers. Lean Manufacturing is becoming an increasingly noteworthy consequence for manufacturing companies in developed countries as they try to find procedure to vie more effectu onlyy versus competition from Asia.2.2 Lean Manufacturing.Lean Manufacturing is a implant of tools and ruleologies that aims for the continuous elimination of all(prenominal) waste in the production process. The main benefits of this are lower production cost increased take and stripped production lead multiplication.Some of the goals take onUtilization of equipment and area using up equipment and manufacturing area more efficiently by eradicating bottlenecks and maximizing the rate of production though existing equipment, date reducing machine mass beat.Defects and wastesRedu ce deserts and gratuitous physical wa spot, including surplus office of unsanded material arousals, preventable defects, and costs associated with reprocessing defective items and dispensable product characteristics which are not take by guests.FlexibilityHave the ability to develop a more springlike range of products with minimum changeover costs and changeover cadence.Labor productivityImprove poke productivity, both by reducing the inactive quantify of over pass oners and ensuring that when bringers are works, they are using their effort as productively as possible output signalInsofar as shortend cycle times, increased labor productivity and removal of bottlenecks and machine downtime can be completed, companies can generally significantly increase output from their existing facilities.Inventory levels belittle gillyflower levels at all steps of production, offseticularly works-in-progress mingled with production steps. Lower inventories also mean lower worki ng capital requirements. rhythm TimesReduce manufacturing lead times and production cycle times by reducing waiting times mingled with processing stages, as well as process preparation times and product.Most of these benefits lead to lower unit production costs for example, more effective determination of equipment and space leads to lower depreciation costs per unit declared, more effective use of labor results in lower labor costs per unit kick upstairsd and lower defects lead to lower cost of goods sold.2.3 The Five Lean PrinciplesThe vital beginning station when ever-changing a traditional production line into a Lean process is the determination of appraise from the customers points of view, which is significant as the goal of the Lean process is a line where e precise practise adds a specified customer value to the product. Having identified the value of products, the atomic amount 16 step is to identify and stage the value stream in the production line. Value stre am stand forping refers to the mapping of a products route and is explained in more detail further. The third principle is the connection of value creating activities in a continuous course process. Every dilemma or smokestack and stand process moldiness be avoided to obtain an uninterrupted flow throughout the production. The ideal production Flow is drawn on a map, and existing procedures changed and equipment relocated to reflect this. The fourth principle is not to produce anything upstream unless it is inevitable downstream. The principle is in contrast to batch and queue procedures, as seen in mass production, and aims to cast down the make out of resources locked up in inventories. It implies that production must be just-in-time, both insidely betwixt processes and externally when delivering products to the End-user. The fifth principle is about pursuing perfection through a continuous improvement. This is not merely about creating a product that the customer requ ires with a minimum of defects, but also includes the perfection of any implement in connection with the production process. It involves all employees as they know procedures the most(prenominal) and are closest to make suggestions for improvement. The involvement of everyone in the continuous improvement is what makes Lean a doctrine improving working processes is integrated in handicraft routines.(Womack Jones 2003 Bicheno 2004).2.5 The kind of waste in food production overproductionProducing elements for which in that location are no client requirements. The Lean principle is to use a pull system, or producing goods just as clients order them. help organizations operate this counsel by their very nature. Industrialization organizations, furthermore, have historically operated by a Push System, building products to stock, without firm customer orders. Anything produced beyond the customer demand (safety stocks, work-in-process inventories, etc.) ties up valuable labor and material resources and whence is a waste.WaitingTime during production (service) when no value is added to product (service). This includes waiting for material, information, equipment, tools, stock-outs, lot processing delays, equipment downtime, capacity bottlenecks, etc. The Lean principle is to use a just-in-time (JIT) system- not too soon, not too late. cargo shipsUnnecessary moving and handling of split. This includes transporting work-in-process long distances, trucking to and from an off-site repositing induction. Lean demands that the material be shipped directly from the vendor to the location in the assembly line where it will be utilize. Material should be delivered to its point of use.Over- biddingingUnnecessary processing or procedures than necessary to learn customer demand. green examples multiple inspecting. Statistical process delay techniques can be utilise to eliminate or minimize the amount of inspection required. Value catamenia Mapping is an opposit e(prenominal) lean tool that can be employ for this purpose also. This tool is frequently used to help identify non-valued-added steps in the process (for both manufacturers and service organizations). wasted Inventory unornamented raw material, or finished goods. Inventory beyond that needed to meet customer demands negatively impacts cash flow and uses valuable floor space.DefectsScrap, rework, alternate production, and inspection. Production defects and service errors waste resources in four ways. First, materials are consumed. Second, the labor used to produce the part (or provide the service) the first time cannot be recovered. Third, labor is required to rework the product (or redo the service). Fourth, labor is required to address any forthcoming customer complaints. Total musical note care (TQM) is one of the lean tools that can be used to for reducing defects.Excess MotionUnnecessary motion of people or equipment that adds to value to product (service). This is caused b y poor workflow, poor layout, housekeeping, and inconsistent or undocumented work methods. Value Stream Mapping is also used to identify this shell of waste. Tools like 5S, comfortable workspace design can be used to eliminate this waste.Underutilized PeopleUnderutilization of mental, creative, and physical skills and abilities of employees of the organization. Some of the more common causes for this waste include organizational culture, inadequate hiring practices, poor or non-existent training, and high employee turnover.2.6 The Policy to reduce the wastePolicy to reduce waste consists of several systems1- Reduced rear up TimeIt reduced the time required to adjust the machines to produce a different product. A long time in the control of the machine means the need to produce spacious quantities of the very(prenominal) product and thus prevents us from reducing the size of the order, which in turn prevents us from bloodline reduction and prevents us from the production proces s of withdrawing. Permission must be reduced machine set time dramatically.2- teeny-weeny curing size Which is the size of the order per batch per production? If the size of individually run command (order) significant meaning that we will store a lot of semi-finished materials, which do not want to do because we want to reduce inventory in general3- Reduced cause in Process An inventory of the materials or parts that have passed the initial stage of production and did not pass to the latter. Reduce inventory this is essential in the philosophy of the policy of reducing losses because of its impact on the coverage of production problems and because it is a money investor.4- Policy pull Production it means that production on the basis of need for the next stage of production and not on the basis of a specific production plan. The first production engineering stage not only if produces and need permission from the production stage next and so on until the end of the production li ne. in that respect is stacked production between stages. This is also known as Kanban tease apart or card.5- Quality Control Circles It is a work teams of operators and technicians are analyze and solving quality problems and operation and maintenance. These rings are necessary to study the problems and uprooted from their roots and to involve all levels of work in solving problems. Quality control loops is a continuous development of methods Continuous usefulness, which is one of the fundamental principle of the Toyota system.6- Total Productive MaintenanceThey maintenance system leads to increased availability of equipment and reduce breakdowns. This system is necessary to be able to reduce inventory of semi-finished materials and the capital punishment of the policy to withdraw production. Must be reduced dramatically sudden failure to implement these policies.7- Group Technology It is a method designed to manufacture similar products in one place to reduce the transport time and wait in what is known as the carrell manufacturing Cells. This method helps to reduce transfer times material from one place to another and make each(prenominal) group of operators responsible for different stages of the production for the same product that they have a kind of full responsibleness for the product.8- Multi Task Employees Meaning that the worker trained to do several tasks or else of one task. This method gives the flexibility to change the functions of working when needed. Note that this system is designed to fall in the speed of response to customer requirements and thus in that location must be flexibility in employment as well so that you can change the functions of Group concord to the requirements of the market. This method has a lot to do with technology group, where can one player that is racecourse several machines.9- Production levelingToyota system is designed to reduce the variables and produce small amounts of each product every twenty-f our hour period, so there is no need to produce large quantities of a product in one day. Reduce the change helps us not to maintain a large stock and makes the production process is running smoothly and regularity without significant changes.10- Just In Time Purchasingit means of access to raw materials and production supplies when you need them briskly. This procurement policy is needed to reduce inventory and production development and reduce defects in products. To reach that there is a lot of things are applied, such as reducing the number of suppliers and to abet with them and compel them specific things in the style of their work.11- Maintain a work environment 5S It means arrange and organize and swell workplace and work tools so that you have access to the tools and information is accessible, fast and the site is a good place to work and safe at the same time. This method is called 5S relative to the Nipponese words that mean organize and arrange and clean workplace.12- Total Quality ControlThere is a correlation between policies to reduce waste and total quality instruction both supports the other. To reach to pull production policy has to be to reach high levels of quality. Therefore, Toyota and Japanese companies have applied TQM or total quality control of the most authorised has been applied is the technical checks parts produced by himself in the esthesis that the product is scanned during each stage production by the operators themselves. It is the powers of the workers off the production line in the event of a quality problem.2.6.1 The Benefits of reducing the waste change performance indicators such as reduce losses to a great extent high product quality (in call of meekness with specifications) any low percentage of defective products Reduced time progress (which is the time to meet manufacturing orders) high inventory turnover rate very high flexibility to change production from one product to another lower the sudden failure of eq uipment low additional cost smasher cost increase production capacity high accuracy to meet the supply orders on time for supply the speed of response to changing market improvement of financial indicators in the long term, including the profitability Improved morale of workers2.7Quality in Lean Manufacturing2.7.1. Reducing the Defect-Detection Time GapThe most important improvement that is made by a move from last(a) inspections to successive checks to self checks is in the reduction of the time s compacttle between creation of a defect and its detection. Figure 1 show how this time gap shrinks as one progresses towards self inspectionGrinder exertionLatheMillFigure 1 the time lag includes all operations that happenIn Figure 1, the time lag includes all operations that happen to the part after the defectHas been made and forrader the defect will be detected (more defective parts can be madeDuring this time if the defect is due to a broken machine tool, improper machining method ,Or other problems that do not create alone one isolated defect).LatheMillFigure 2 the time gap shrinksIn Figure 2 the time gap shrinks to the length of time before the operator of the nextMachine handles the part. In a job shop, this may be a significant quantity of time and ifseparate are produced in batches often the entire batch may have the same defect. However,In cellular manufacturing this time lag is small, since the queue is only one unit.LatheMillFigure 3 the time lag has shrunk downIn Figure 3 the time lag has shrunk down to the amount of time that the operator spendsOn the given operation before he or she checks the part. Self-inspection produces visibility of the problem after the first defective part is made (if it is detectable). Catching defective parts prevents adding more value to parts that will be scrapped or reworked later. Clearly this reduction in time lag can lead to quicker and easier detection of what the problem is that is causation the defect, reduction in wasted time in the form of value added to scrapped parts, and wasted time spent assembling a part that will have to be disassembled and and so reassembled. Overall, quicker elimination of defect cause problems will result in a reduction of the number and cost of bad quality parts.2.8 productiveness in lean manufacturing2.8.1 IntroductionThe lean manufacturing focus on 20 keys I will present only key number 6 method improvement (Productivity)Figure 4 Relationship Diagram20 Keys2.8.2 DefinitionProductivity is about how well resources are used. The other area of general consensus is that productivity is about the relation between output and input in any process producing goods or services.Productivity can be calculated as output divided by inputP = O/IWhere P = Productivity , O = end product and I = Input getup can be measured in different way tones, Kilograms or even output defined as standard minutes or hours2.8.3 The components of productivityProductivity basically has two c omponents abilityUtilizationsUtilization is about whether the resources available are actually used in producing the product or service. That is a machine might be available but if no product is scheduled to be produced then it is not utilized , or if product is scheduled to be produced for only 85% of the available time then utilization is 85% Efficiency . On the other hand, is about how well the resources are used while it is being utilized.The formula for productivity is thenProductivity = Efficiency X UtilizationThis formula can be expandedProductivity = Output / Available hours, that is how much did we produce during the time that the resources were availableEfficiency = Output / seconds worked, that is how much did we produce during the time that the resources were actually operating.Utilization = Hours worked / Hours available, that is for what percentage of time did we actually utilize the resources.2.8.4 People. conceptiont- and process related issues impacting on produc tivityIt is important to understand what issues typically impact on productivity as you can then look for the causes to why productivity is not at the level it should be.If productivity is not at the target level it can be explained in terms of the two components of efficiency and utilization that it can be either an efficiency loss or none utilizes time. This can be because of people, plant or process related issues.The following summary show typical examples of issues impaction on productivity.Efficiency lossPeopleWork methodWork rateEffort ( motivation issues )SkillsQuality of work send offt / ProcessSpeed ,idling ,minor stoppagesQuality of productNon Utilized timePeoplePlant / processMarket demandWork rateDowntimeChangeoversTable 2 issues impaction on productivity2.8.5 Productivity Improvement an Integrated ApproachProductivity improvement cannot be achieved by only implementing Kaizen operation.Figure 5 Productivity Improvement An Integrated ApproachProductivity increase and e xcellent quality can be achieved at the same time.2.8.6 Implementing key 6Implementing kaizen of operation requires the effective use of the CAPDo cycle. The CAPDo cycle is a simple management system for continuous improvement. One a even for murder has been drawn up, the actual training needs must be scheduled it is important to check regularly whether training targets have been met, and if not, the undercoat for this must be analyzed. Problem identified can then become actions for the next CAPDo cycle.Figure 6 CAPDo CycleCheckCompany and every department against the map.Benchmark the social club using key 6 mapCheck current productivity performanceAnalyzeIdentify process for improvement.The benchmark score.Productivity performance to identify priority processes to focus on.PlanUse the five steps methodology for process improvement.Put goals for all processUse the five steps methodology for process improvement.Plan the improvement using 20 keys plan.DoImplementing the planRegu lar feedback from goals on progressImplement the plan for achieving the target.CheckRestart the cycle throughReviewing the results of the plan on monthly basisReviewing key progress with the map at least every six monthsUpdate skills matrix poke outCycle of CAPDo improvement and celebrate success.2.9 Actual Cases2.9.1 Meal production in Glostrup Hospitals main kitchen, Denmark.The main hypothesis of this paper is that where any implement LM it is more likely to make positive on food production so I present lean principles can applied in repast production to increase the efficiency without reducing the quality of meal prepared. All lean principles and tools may not be equally applicable in food production, but it is important to consider this aspect when discussing the implementation of lean in meal production. Glostrup Hospital is situated in the greater Copenhagen area in Denmark. The primaeval Kitchen is situated inside the Hospital thou in a separate building, and every day, me als for approximately 1000 patients are produced and distributed from the kitchen. In 2005, the hospitals management took the decision that all services should be Lean, and to cut the costs of meal production, the kitchen was forced to replace cook-serve with cook-chill production and reduce the number of foodservice employees from 71 to 54. This brought about a need to review and optimize the production procedures to maintain both output quantity and quality. The change of production system to cook-chill also had an impact on the end-product quality as recipes and production procedures needed adjustments. Therefore, the systematic evaluation and improvement of product quality was given a high priority in the kitchen. The internal working environment in the kitchen was important to the manager as she insisted on maintaining this as a high priority during and after the rationalization process, and that increased efficiency of production processes was obtained by the optimization of p rocedures and not by making the staff work faster. Because of these reservations, the implementation of Lean was expected to result in both increased efficiency of processes and improved product quality while ensuring a pleasant working environment for the remaining employees. The implementation of Lean in the kitchen began shortly after the change to cook-chill processing and before procedures became routine. The kitchen produces most components of the meals themselves including breads, soups and processed vegetables. Previously with cook-serve production, there were separate production lines for hot meal components, vegetables, baked products, desserts and cold products for these meals, all items were prepared, processed and kept warm until service. Initially, when changing to cook-chill production, the separation of production according to meal was maintained with processed meal components being assembled into meals, packed and stored for up to 3 days before final distribution to hospital wards. The case was standardised in two, five or seven mickles per pack, and the wards received the portion sizes equal to or the closest number above their actual orders. This practice of standardizing packaging was accepted by the management as a pragmatic practice of cook-chill production. The implementation of cook-chill production procedures called for a systematic evaluation of product quality. A graph on display in the production facility showing the daily number of comments on food quality was chosen as an expression of customer satisfaction with product quality. The number of complaints for each meal component, based on feedback received from wards and patients, was totaled and each day marked on the chart. This procedure was chosen as a way to ensure communication of customer product satisfaction to all employees. An internal quality control system was developed to reflect the need for adjusting recipes to improve meal quality after the change from cook serve to cook-chill production. It consisted of a three-color gradation of product acceptability where red refers to not welcome yellow, acceptable and green, good. The testing of product quality was performed internally in the kitchen, and the products had to obtain a yellow to pass. This system was developed to visualize the progress of adjusting existing procedures to cook-chill production. As a result of the implementation the hospital realized some quick financial wins. Revenue increased 19%, eliminate wastes meals from 10% to 5% (England al.2009).2.9.2 Implementing 20 keys in modern bakeries company (Rich Bake), Egypt.In 2008 modern bakeries company management took the decision that some production process should be lean. The company decided implement 10 keys from 20 keysKey1 cleaning organizing to make work easy.Key 2 Rationalizing the system / goal Alignment.Key 3 Small Group Activities.Key 5 Quick Changeover Technology.Key 6 Kaizen of operation.Key 9 Maintaining Machines Equip ment.Key 10 Workplace Discipline.Key 11 Quality Assurance.Key 15 Skill Versatility and cross Training.Key 19 Conserving Energy and Materials.Table 3 present the 20key, s evaluation before and after implementing lean on modern bakeries company through 2 years.KeyBase Line Level 2008201011.8221.5230.81.251.51.861.51.8911.3101.52.31122.5151.51.7191.51.5Table 3 20 keys evaluationEliminate wastes from 3% to 1.8%.Increase productivity from 16KG Man / Hour to 18.5 Kg Man /Hour.2.12 The enormous obstacles for food production in terms of adoptingLM approaches to improvement.There is some problems face the food production companies to implementing lean manufacturing, generally as follows.Lack of a clear vision of the nextLack of patience and follow.Lack of persistent and challenge in leadership. unsuccessful person to link the processes in key 6 kaizen operation with normal work. trouble to perceive that lean is a viable strategy to help achieve competitive advantage.Lack of constant visibil ity by management.Failure of management to take a whole systems view of business and to see the connections between all processes.Persistent focus only on demanding results without a vestibular sense focus improving the processes that achieve the results.III- Research Methodology3.1 Research ObjectivesThe main aim of the study is to present the main idea of the Lean manufacturing system, and the benefit of applying it in the field of food production, and identifying the kinds of wastes in production process, and the effect of the Lean manufacturing on food production and presenting some examples of successful companies that implemented the Lean manufacturing.3.2 Conceptual manakinFigure 7 LM Conceptual Framework3.3 Research Question and Hypotheses3.3.1 Research QuestionsWhy and how companies should implement lean manufacturing in food production?3.3.2 Research HypothesesWhen organizations implement lean manufacturing, it is more likely to make positive on food production?3.3.3 Ind ependent comprise reduction, waste rate, revenue gains3.3.4 DependentReturn on investment, profit in organization.IV Conclusion and RecommendationConclusionThrough the study found that there is a potential for the use of lean manufacturing system in food production and that explained by viewing experience hospital central kitchen in Denmark and experience modern bakeries company in Egypt, where the application of lean manufacturing system to gain increased efficiency ,quality, and productivity through the application of tools for lean manufacturing .. Easy to implementing lean manufacturing in big company that have systems for examples ISO9001, 2200, HACCPEasy to implementing lean manufacturing in small company but focus only 3 or 4 principles in the first stage .4.2 Recommen